The horticulture of Japan unfolded in a number of original ways during the Edo period and became one of the world’s unique horticultures. Wild plants that were unknown elsewhere in the world were upgraded into horticultural products, with variegated vegetation and mutant morning glories being most popular. Moreover, the introduction to Japan of plants from other countries helped Edo-period horticulture attain new heights.

1. Trends

During the early half of the Edo period, trees such as camellia, Japanese cherry, Japanese apricot, azalea, and maple underwent cultivation. On the other hand, the chrysanthemum was virtually the only major plant. From about the middle of the 18th century, however, plants began to take the place of trees, and the Japanese sacred lily (Rohdea japonica), morning glory, whisk fern (Psilotum nudum (L.) Griseb), Japanese iris, and pheasant’s eye (Amur adonis) became horticultural products.

TOKUGAWA Hidetada, the second Shogun of the Tokugawa Shogunate, was attracted to camellias, and this is said to have been a major impetus for the development of horticulture during the Edo period. By the first half of the 17th century, there were more than 100 varieties of camellia, and numerous illustrated books on camellia were published. This volume includes 48 varieties of camellia. Camellia, Japanese cherry, Japanese apricot, and maple all remained popular through the end of the Edo period.

Wild morning glories generally produce light blue flowers, but mutations with white flowers were available in the early 17th century, and later those with red-purple flowers also appeared. The picture shown below, which was drawn in 1692, is one of the oldest known sketches of morning glories with red-purple flowers.

This book is one of the earliest known pictorial encyclopedias to include the Japanese chrysanthemum. The preface and closing notes indicate that this book comprises 100 illustrations of named varieties that were drawn in 1519 and published in 1691 together with newly written Chinese-style poems. Junho, the author, was the 282nd head priest of the Ken’nin Temple in Kyoto. Every printed illustration in this book is colored with a brush, which makes it one of only two copies with fully colored illustrations.

Ardisia crispa is a member of the primrose family and grows natively throughout Japan. Around 1795, mutated varieties with variegated or aberrant leaves became popular. The Ardisia crispa shown below on the right has leaves that are much sharper than the common variety, while that on the left has quite short leaves. Mutated varieties sometimes fetched the very high price of 2,300 ryo. This is one of three books that include Ardisia crispa and were published in 1797, with a sequel also published the following year.

This book contains illustrations of 124 varieties of Japanese cherry trees that were planted in the garden surrounding MATSUDAIRA Sadanobu’s townhouse in Tsukiji-Reiganjima (near the Tsukiji Market in present-day Tokyo). This book is a copy from an original manuscript created by Tani Buncho in response to a request from Sadanobu. The flowers shown below at left are a variety characterized by deep green petals. The National Diet Library also holds a volume related to this one, entitled Yokuon Shunju Ryoen Baito Soka Fu（『浴恩春秋両園梅桃双花譜』<ヘニ-20>）.

This book, together with Somoku Kin’yo Shu mentioned below, includes a number of curiosities. On the right is a mutation of Amur adonis with sharp blossoms like fringed pink (Dianthus superbus) and a variegation of Orostachys iwarenge (Makino) Hara. On the left is a mutation of holly with warped leaf apexes, a variegation of longleaf podocarpus, and other vegetation. From the latter half of the 18th century, mutation and variegation were valued highly. This book is the only pictorial encyclopedia dedicated to approximately 500 mutated and rare varieties. The author, Kinta, was a gardener at Aoyama, Edo, and the drawings are by SEKINE Untei and other illustrators.

Like Somoku Kihin Kagami above, this book is full of curious vegetation and is an even more comprehensive botanical encyclopedia. This book contains illustrations of about 1000 varieties of curiosities, mainly aberrant leaves. Most illustrations are drawn by SEKINE Untei. In addition to the three types of gingko shown here, there are also a rose and a Zanthoxylum armatum DC. with variegated leaves. The author, MIZUNO Tadatoshi, was a vassal of the Tokugawa Shogunate who was an accomplished horticulturalist, respected even by professional gardeners. The illustrations of Rohdea japonica in the next section were also edited by Tadatoshi and illustrated by Untei.

Rohdea japonica were commonly seen as early as 1820, and a smaller variety called Koomoto was especially popular for its uniquely shaped and variegated leaves. The illustrations below were published on the occasion of a Koomoto exhibition in Hachiman-sha shrine at Kuramae, Edo in 1832. Each page shows 15 pots of Koomoto. These pots were also one of the highlights, since stylish pots were appreciated just as much as the plants were at that time. At least 9 similar publications from this exhibition are known.

Dendrobium moniliforme L. was a kind of orchid that gained popularity between 1820 and 1840. A unique aspect of Dendrobium moniliforme L. is that mutations of leaves were more highly prized than flowers. This book contains 33 pictures of Dendrobium moniliforme L., a number of which are variegated. Although the flowers of wild Dendrobium moniliforme L. are white, seen here in the bottom right is a variety with pale red flowers, while opposite that is a variety with mutated leaves and stems. The author, Akiotei Shujin, is a gardener in Kyoto, whose family name was HIGUCHI.

The whisk fern (Psilotum nudum (L.) Griseb.) has finely divided branches that look like broomsticks. It is considered a living fossil and was valued for variations in the shape of and the yellowing (chlorosis) of its branches. Together with the Rohdea japonica, it was a popular plant during the 1820s. This book introduces 90 varieties of whisk fern and is one of the best-quality color publications of the time. Shown below on the right is a variety with foliage very similar to wild varieties but some of the branches exhibit chlorosis. On the left is a variety that is evocative of the weeping willow but with yellow grain-like sporangia.

Anodendron affine (Hook. Et Arn.) Druce was popular between 1838 and 1839. Although it is a member of the orchid family, it was appreciated not for its flowers but for the changing shape of the leaves. There are illustrations of 34 varieties in this book, each marked with the type of mutation in the upper right corner, the name of the variety on the pot, and the name of the exhibitor in the lower left. The red stamp in the lower left is the variety’s appraisal.

The lily has been one the best-loved varieties of flower since ancient times. The author of this work wrote that Lilium maculatum Thunb., a kind of lily, were especially popular in Owari province (the western part of modern Aichi Prefecture), where he was from. This area apparently enjoyed significantly more mutated varieties of Lilium pseudolirion Thunb. than Edo or Osaka, which were the two largest Japanese cities during the Edo period. This book gives the names 68 different varieties of Lilium maculatum Thunb. The National Diet Library holds another book with the same title (<特1-60>), but the illustrations and the number of varieties differ between the two volumes.

There are 30 varieties of lily illustrated in this book, each shown with the name and other information. The author, SAKAMOTO Konen, was a physician who served the Kii Han (located in modern Wakayama and southern Mie Prefectures) and was also a famed illustrator. The National Diet Library also holds other works by Konen, including Kin Fu and Kin Fu Nishu (book of mushrooms I and II), Tutsuji Fu (book of azaleas), Botanka Fu (book of peonies), Chiku Fu Shinsha (book of realistically rendered bamboo), Ryukyu Soka Zusetsu (illustrated book of Ryukyu flora), and Ryukyu Somoku Shasei (sketches of Ryukyu plants and trees)

Since the early Edo period, Amur adonis has been popular as a New Year’s flower. Sometime around 1848, when this book was edited, mutated varieties of Amur adonis seem to have increased, and as many as 131 varieties were named in Honzo Yosei, which has a foreword that was written in 1862. The three co-authors of this book, Gunpo-en Yasaburo, Saika-en Chotaro, and MORITA Rokusaburo were all well-known gardeners in Edo.

The pasque-flower was appreciated during the Edo period as a quirky flower. This book contains color prints of eight different varieties, each showing its name and a description of its characteristics. As can be seen from the four varieties shown below, the pasqueflower was famous for its many colors and mutations of petal shape. The Japanese name Okinagusa (okina (old man) and kusa (plant)) is derived from its white trichome, which resemble the white hair of an old man.

The iris is another flower that has been appreciated since ancient times. During the Edo period, MATSUDAIRA Sadatomo, a vassal of the Tokugawa Shogunate, inherited his father’s work and dramatically increased the number of varieties. This book was first published in 1846 under the title Hana Kagami and was revised five times, with new illustrations each time. This book is the manuscript of last revised edition written by Sadatomo himself and includes 21 varieties.

Morning glories captured the hearts of the people of Edo twice—once in 1818 and again from 1848 to 1862. This book was published in 1848 at the start of the second boom. It shows mutated morning glories with uniquely shaped flowers and leaves, which were especially popular at that time. There was a variety at that time with yellow petals but it is now lost. Banka-en is a pseudonym of Yokoyama Seimei, a vassal of the Tokugawa Shogunate. This book is illustrated by HATTORI Sessai. This book is considered to be the best illustrated guide to morning glories of its time and, as the name Sanjurokkasen (36 selected flowers) indicates, it contains descriptions of 36 varieties.

2. Novel flowering plants and shrubs

Many of the flowering plants and shrubs that we are familiar with today were introduced to Japan from abroad during the Edo period. Examples include sunflowers, marvel of Peru, carnations, Mexican roses, pansies, hibiscus, and oleanders. Tomatoes were also first introduced to Japan at this time, but were cultivated only for display.

Hibiscus were first brought to Japan from Ryukyu (today’s Okinawa Prefecture) in 1609 and introduced under the name Bussoge. It was not until the 18th century, however, that people learned how to overwinter hibiscus using heated facilities such as a tomuro. The illustration below was created in 1822. The hibiscus is said to be indigenous to South China and Indochina, but this has never been proven.

The illustration below on the right shows a tomato plant, which is indigenous to the Andes in South America. It is assumed that tomatoes were introduced to Japan in the mid-17th century, with the oldest known sketch of a tomato by a Japanese artist is one by KANO Tan’yu from 1668. Tomatoes were cultivated only for display, not for human consumption, until the latter Edo period. This illustration dates from the first half of the 18th century. Shown below on the left are Pseudolysimachon rotundum (Nakai) Yamaz. var. subintegrum (Nakai) Yamaz. (a plant) and Pyrrosia tricuspis (Sw.) Tagawa (a fern). Words in red were added by ONO Ranzan at a later date.

The sunflower appears to have been introduced to Japan in the mid-17th century. The first known illustration of sunflowers in Japan appeared in Kinmo Zui (1666), and the illustration shown here is the second oldest. Sunflowers were not popular at first, because they were considered too large and crude. Kusabana E Zenshu is one of the earliest comprehensive illustrated guidebooks on horticulture and introduces 120 varieties of plants. The author, ITO Ihe San’nojoh, was one of the most notable gardeners at Somei, Edo, and his son, Masatake, later edited his father’s work.

The marvel of Peru (Mirabilis jalapa) shown below on the left is described as a reddish-purple flower. It is indigenous to South America and seems to have been introduced to Japan in the latter 17th century, which is about when this illustration was made. According to KAIBARA Ekiken’s Ka Fu (1698), a variety of marvel of Peru with yellow flowers was also introduced during the Edo period. Below on the right is a Japanese anemone, which seems to have been introduced from China during the Muromachi period.

The passion flower is called tokeiso (tokei (clock) and so (plant)), because of its resemblance to a clock face. Indigenous to Brazil, it is said to have been introduced to Japan either during the late 16th century or during the early 18th century. Sometime around 1800, techniques were developed that allowed overwintering of passion flowers. Its unique appearance intrigued people, and there are many illustrations extant. This particular illustration is from 1826.

In spring of 1842, some seeds of the sensitive plant (Minosa pudica) from Nagasaki were delivered to YAMAMOTO Boyo in Kyoto. People were astonished by this plant and its leaves, which fold inward and droop when touched, and flooded Yamamoto-Dokushoshitsu (a private school established by YAMAMOTO Boyo) with poetry and commentary about the plant. This book is a compilation of writings sent to Yamamoto-Dokushoshitsu. Indigenous to South America, it was first introduced to Japan around 1840 by a ship from the Netherlands.

Shown here are the red flowers of the moss rose (Portulaca grandiflora), which is indigenous to South America. Its seeds were first brought to Japan in 1860 by the returning Japanese Embassy to the United States, which also brought the seeds of snapdragons, petunias, sweet peas, and digitalis. This book was written by a senior retainer of the Owari Han and is an excellent resource for 130 varieties of plants that were introduced to Japan primarily at the end of the Edo period. This particular copy was transcribed by fifth daughter of ITO Keisuke, Koharu, who was also the mother of ITO Tokutaro.

An annotation in this book says that pansies were introduced from Edo to Owari in the winter of 1866. Indigenous to northern Europe, pansies were first brought from the UK to Japan in the winter of 1862, according to Shokubutsu Zusetsu Zassan, edited by ITO Keisuke. Although the Japanese Embassy to Europe returned carrying seeds of cosmos and Nigella damascena L. that winter, it seems that pansies were introduced via a different route.

This illustration was created jointly by two master natural history illustrators who were active during the mid-19th century. The reddish-purple flower on the left is by HATTORI Sessai, and the yellow flower on the right is the work of SEKINE Untei. Hyacinths are indigenous to Asia Minor and were first brought to Japan at the end of the Edo period. This material was given to ITO Keisuke by KUSHIMOTO Sakyo, a physician to the Tokugawa Shogunate.

This illustration is of a palm that germinated and started to grow leaves. It appears to have been created at the end of the Edo period or the first year of the Meiji period.

Although the original title says this is a pineapple tree, it is actually a fragrant screw-pine (Pandanus tectorius Soland. var. tectorius). Fragrant screw-pines are widely grown in tropical and subtropical zones around the Pacific Ocean, and in Japan they grow wild in the Ryukyu Islands (Okinawa Prefecture). According to an annotation, this illustration is a transcription of a painting given in 1794 by a student from Ryukyu to SO Senshun, a physician to the Satsuma Han in modern-day Kagoshima Prefecture. In fact, it is a transcription of J. W. Weinmann’s Duidelyke vertoning. It has also mistakenly been attributed to SHIBA Kokan.